The Military History of Sri Lanka.

Contents

THE FRONT PAGE

GALLERY

ANCIENT SEALS AND SEALINGS-RAJA WICKREMASINGHE

CHARIOTS IN ANCIENT ARMIES OF SRI LANKA

POWER-THE BEST USE OF MILITARY MIGHT

SIGIRIYA

TIME LINE OF MUSKETS AND CANNONS IN SRI LANKA

Our ancient text the Mahawansa has recorded over 1200 battles, the names of Kings or the Generals who led the armies and  fought these battles, the place of battle and probable date,  and the weapons and tactics used, the results etc. This is an attempt to re-record them and tie them with information found in other texts and  on rock inscriptions.

Four methods of the warriors.

According to the text Abhidhanappadipika the Catura Upaya, the four means of success in battle is Bheda[ the division or weakening of the enemy] ,Danda [ Open War-fare or offensive operations], Sama [ Peaceful negotiations, treaty] and Danani[ Gifts, Bribes..]. Vijayabahu I[1058-1114 AD] based his military operation on these four methods of Warriors to destroy the Cholas who were ravaging the Rajarata[ Mahavansa Chapter 58 verse 3]. The doctrine of four upayas is also  known in Vedas, the Mahabaratha,in the Amarokosha and other  epics of India.  These  methods was collected and treatises was published by Kautiliya during the time of Chandrapupta in his famous Arthasastra. Kotilla [ Kautiliya] is quoted in the Mahavansa.

An example

“Kautilya the Minister of Chandragupta silent war or a war of assassination against an unsuspecting king, his approval of secret agents who killed enemy leaders and sowed discord among them, his view of women as weapons of war, his use of religion and superstition to bolster his troops and demoralize enemy soldiers, the spread of disinformation, and his humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects”.

Archer at Ridivihare Late Anuradhapura period. Carries a backpack of Arrows, slung by a perhaps a cross belt.

The Mahavansa, Dipavansa the 4/5 Cent  AD ,Text of Sri Lanka  describes wars fought by kings, the start with two peace keeping mission of the Buddha in his visit to Mahiyangana and Nagadipa to settle a disputes between tribes living here before the arrival of Vijeya, one of then was a dispute  over a Throne between two Naga Kings . Here he used two eclipse of the Moon and the Sun to settle the disputes . This may be used as Astroarchaeology tool to test the dates mentioned in these ancient Chronicles.

In these ancient   chronicles are the name the Generals who fought battles, the Tactics used ,the type of Weapons and other logistics activities , and the Peace Treaties enacted . Most facts are substantiated by Folk lore ,contemporary inscriptions , by painting and sculptures. the finding of ancient Fortress . There is an Peace treaty enacted found on a rock Inscription at Sangamuva Vihare in Kurunegala District, as mentioned in the Mahavansa.

I have been reading the Mahavansa ,to extract quotes on the conduct of Battles by our ancient kings- After rereading many times I believe Mahavansa is by it selves a treatise of the conduct of war .

Text books on warfare.

The Mahavansa in Ch70 para 56 describing war preparations of Parakramabahu I.

Parakramabahu The Great[ 1153-1186 Ad ]

” With careful consideration of the work profitable for the carrying out the war, such as the text books Koatalla[ Kautalaya] the Yuddhannava and others[ now lost], He versed in the procedures of war, worked out with ingenuity in way according with the locality and the time, the plan of campaign [ Yuddhopaya], wrote it down, had it handed out to the officers and gave the order.

‘ Doubt not that ye do thing of great moment, if ye do but swerve by a hair’s breadth from this my instruction’.. … “.

The Mahavansa of the Buddhist monks, contains enough material on the thinking of kings, based on potentials threat and remedial actions taken along some interesting details of the battles fought.

Sri Lankan Kings never aspired to conquer the world, though many punitive raids across the Palk Strait and one adventure to Burma in the 12th Century were planned and executed by them. Their main strategy was to safeguard the Island from Invasions. There it differed from that of the Indian, though many of the other Indian methods of Kautiliya were put into practice .

The lot could be gained from those strategies and tactics adopted by the ancient Sinhalese, especially regarding the Topography of the Island. H.W.Codrington has published much of this. CW Nicholas in the RAS Journal Vol 4 – Historical Topography of Ancient and Medieval Ceylon has most name places of Battles, Training camps, Fortress, Fords, strategic rivers and mountain ranges all mentioned from these texts. The works done at the Military Academies since Gen Mutukumarana’s historical book, need be collated by serious Military Scholars.

How the Sinhalese were mentally and physically prepared for any eventuality is spelled out by PEP Deraniyagala in Combative Sports of the Sinhalese. The practice of combative sports and the Schools was strategically banned by the English after 1820’s.

“Combative sports were practiced from the earliest times not merely for amusement but in order to foster disregard for pain and death, and to inculcate the valor and pugnacity essential for the survival of a race. ………………. with combat displays between man and man, as well as between animals as staged by the Sinhalese, for producing soldiers who kept their small Island free for over two thousand five hundred years”.

Military Traditions of the Sinhala Kings ?[ click ].The traditions set by General Sarath Fonseka and his illustrious  Commander and Soldiers 2009 was in the blood of the Sri Lankan soldiers, the Valor in the battefield Yuda Vira ,combined with Dhramma Vira and Dana Vira[ humanitarian operation] which were of second nature were old traditions from the days of our kings?.

Organisation.

The four fold forces [the Chaturangabala]– The Hattharohe,Anikatthe, Rathika, Pattikarika or The Elephants, Cavalry, Chariots, and the Foot-Soldiers. Chaturanga is a game like chess that was played in ancient Ceylon H.Parker pg 605.

These are substantiated by ancient rock inscriptions, which are published in the rassl.srilanka web site

The Elephant Corps

S Paranavitane quotes from inscription IC I[ Inscription of Ceylob Volume I] No 112 the word Ati-Acariya [Pali  – Hattaacariya], denotes one who trained War Elephant. There appears to have been several of these Elephant trainers and at the same time.They organised themselves into a company, the leader of which had the title of Gamini[ IC I No 404], the only instance in which this word has been used by a personage who was not of royal rank. The donor of this his inscription, Paduma-guta, was the son of Paduma who is called Ati-acariya-gamini, which corresponds exactly to hatathacariyo gamini used in Samyutta-Nikaya to denote the leader of a band of warriors who fought on Elephant’s back or of Elephant-trainers.

A Cavalry Officer wearing helmet and his horse- Isurumuniya Temple Anuradhapura, Kalakeerthi E. Ariyadas has identified this with King Pandukabaya[ 377-307 BC ], the first Cavalry officer mentioned in Mahawansa and his Mare Cetiya, overlooking Anuradhapura his first capital.

The Cavalry.

S.Paranavitane. ” The better known word denoting Cavalryman is found in IC I No 606,in which the a Upasika Gura, the wife of Paramuka Tisa, the Asaruya[ Pali Assaroha]. Asajiriya[ Pali Assa ariya] in No 1158 was not one who himself fought on horse back, but a professional who trained horses and their riders in military Exercises and Manoeuvres. …. the cavalry was confined to kings guards, and Cavalry and bodyguards became synonymous. A commission a Anikata regiment appears to have been highly coveted, and it not only conferred distinction on a person who obtained it, but also his relatives.

C12 Chariot- Trivaka Pilmige.

The Chariots [Waggoners].

King Devanampiyatissa[247-207 BC] from Mihintale, is addressed as ‘Lord of The Chariots’ is the 5 Cent AD Chronicle the Mahawansa- Chapter XV para 11

Due to the wooded nature of the country, the use of Chariots and Cavalry in Battles would be restricted. The only painting of a chariot is seen at the Trivanka Pilmige at Pollonuruva. This seems to be Two wheeled type drawn by two horses. Each could have carried the driver and one or two combatants armed with Bows, Lancers and with Swords.  As stated in Dhatuvansa, King Mahanaga of Tissa had presented a Chariot to a Mahakala the son of a wealthy  man, which had seats for 4 persons. Vattagamini Abaya was fleeing Anuradhapura in his Chariot, he had his queen and his elder brother’s Queen Anula  with a child and his son. But, to lighten the Chariot the King gave his Queen Soma  his splendid diadem Jewels and let her at her own consent, descend from the Chariot[ Chapter XXXIII verse 46].

For Logistic the larger version of these, the oxen and elephant carts were used.

The Ottupanthiya-Camel Corp.

The Ottupanthiya or the Camel Corp was recruited from the Moors  by the later Sinhala Kings and they proved to be great fighters. The Camel corp played a prominent role in the victory of Rajasinghe II [ 1632-1687 AD] at the battle of Wellawaya Pass.[ Cyrus.D .F.Abeyakoon].

Foot soldiers.

The earliest mention of Soldier is perhaps from the 1st Cent AD  Habarana Rock Inscription of a Vesamanaya a grandson of  a guard named Naka[ Rakanaka Nakaya ], who  old[ retired] soldier. The name for soldier is Balata which in elu langauge is Balat. A  4th Cent AD inscription at Piligama Uva Province mention a chief officer of an army of 8,000 soldiers as Bala or Batha.

Archers

Calu, dunugaya: Saliya. the archer (IC-I. 490)

Hadaka, danuku: Sadhaka. the archer (IC.II, 39. 6)

Sumana, Dunuga,; the archer (I

Lancers.

Kasub, kolpatti: Kassapa, the lance-bearer (IC.V,I, 30,C. 9;Sg. 92, 314).

Henry Parker names four branches of the Foot Soldiers each bearing their own flag commanded by  young chieftains marching into battle.

The Archers formed the chief branch of the foot soldiers of the Sinhalese army, the weapons of the Sakya. Painting and Sculptures indicate the use of  leather armour, those who could afford were protected by Mail. PEP Dereniyagala suggests that our local tradition dancers are clad in Chain and Mail of ancient soldiers. They had leather scarves or belts  which passed around the right shoulder and the swords scabbards and Quivers were slung. The Vaddha Bow-men too, belonged to this branch.

The Lancers or Spear-men formed another branch of the foot-soldiers.

The third branch perhaps were those who carried the Battle Axe, the Sinhala Keteriya or the broad Axe.

The fourth branch were composed of those who carried the straight Sword and Shield.

Medical services in the ancient army.

Mahavansa Chapter 76 Verse The Medical Services in the Seaborne Military Raid to punish a king in Burma in 12 Cent AD- Parakramabahu I .

“…………………and also different kinds of medicines, preserved in cow horns for healing of venous wounds caused by poisoned arrows, as well as all kinds of remedies for curbing the poison of infected water in the many swampy stretches of the country; also iron pincers for extracting arrowheads which are difficult to move when they have pierced deeply and the shaft has broken, lastly also skilful physicians and serving women’.

Ordnance Services/ Factories.

“….. and abundant weapons of war, such as armour and the like; further gokannaka arrows of iron with sharp points many hundred thousand in number for defense against elephants , .. “.

The ancients mastered the Iron technology and used advanced technologies such as the wind assisted Furnaces that produed high quality steels. This they used for hand tools required for the maintenance and construction of Tanks and Canal system as well as the agricultural tools. In time of war, these craftsmen were deployed for the manufacture of war hardware such as swords, Arrow and Spear heads , Armour etc. Sri lanka was blessed with Iron ore and other metals , which the Kings utilised to the maximum, unlike the present generation which is fully dependent of foreign imports of all war like material.

Iron smith of ancient Sri lanka were very important trade and well recognised, S Paranavitane in Inscription of Ceylon Volume I states

Supplies Corp.

“……………..endowed with vast royal power he had provisions supplied for a whole year such as rice and the like…”.

Military Bands.

Armourers. – Vama-kara is mentioned in inscription IC I No 85.Perhaps a supplier of Chain mail and Leather protective to soldiers.

The only armour worn by  the Sinhala armies that survive is the perhaps a modification of  dress of Vas dancers of Sri Lanka. This was light and  acrobatics like somersaults with twists etc are performed by the dancer wearing this dress, perhaps some of the steps and movement too is connected to art of  Sword fighting ???. Perhaps this protected the vital organs of the body with out sacrificing dexterity.

Ancient ola books mention Buffalo hide was used as armour and a mentions a Mini Van Balayo- a Battalion in Jewelled Armour. The soldier used heart and oval shaped Bucklers for defence as seen in ancient sculptures of

The Rathe– The Chariots, the Elephant and Oxen driven carts etc.

Fortified Citadels in Sri Lanka.

WEAPONS

a.Anuradhapura period . Pasavi or Panchayudha.

b.Pollonaruva Period. The Sinhala Swords as mentioned in texts.

c.Weapons of the Sinhala Army during the Portuguese, Dutch and British Period.- Capt MSC De Silva, CA

Command Structure

a. W. Geiger  has suggested that Senapati or Senevi is the of Commander-in -Chief,  Samata is a rank corresponding to the  Corp Commander, A Nayaka is at Colonel rank etc  etc  Sinhala Kings.The names of Commanders of the Kings in these ranks as recorded in texts and on inscriptions.[ For more click on Link]. The rank of Maha-senpathi found on inscription perhaps an equivalent of Field Marshal.

Historic Battle Flags

b. Martial Music. The Kingdom of Sitawaka- Dr Rismund Amerasinghe:-Many instance mentioned Mahavansa ,the use of martial music in battles. Mhv; Chap XV verse 16.

i.Blowing of the Conch. References in Mahavansa- Ch 25 ,v64 ;Ch 65 V 27; Ch 88 V 74-75.

“……. the shield thus released Dighajantu fell there and Suranimala spring up, slew the fallen with his spear. Pussadeva blew his conch shell and the enemy was scattered…..”

3 types of drums beats the victory drums-Jaya -bera[ Mhv88-v 74-75,- Rana Bera[ Mhv 70-v 226] and Anda Bera to pass messages .

Mahvansa Ch 96.v 15-16 –Use of drums to motivate soldiers to advance in to battle.

War Songs

Military Parades

“…..With row of umbrellas and whisks, with rows of coloured banners and all kinds of pennons he veiled the whole firmament. With trumpeting Elephants and neighing of horses, with the clatter of chariot wheels and the rattle of kettledrums; with the enraptured tone of all festive Chanks or shell trumpets; with the roll of great drums and the cries of victory by the Bards…….. filled the region ….

Tactics. Can the mechanics of skirmishes be worked out from the that described in the texts avialble ?. The aim of this study is to spot light at higher levels what was in the minds of Kings and Commader and at ground level training , covering fire, break through defence and final assault and other technical factors of battle described in the Mahavansa. The type of weapons and defence and methods used in describing battles will extruded from these texts written down in the spirit and in the interest to his church by Buddhist monks.

There are many interesting incidents where the conduct of operation and military tactics are spelled out in our ancient texts. Perhaps the orders given to his Generals Bhuta and Kitti by the Commander in chief of Parakramabahu I , when he facing the armies of Queen Sugula in the South which is quoted with in brackets by W. Geiger

……………”Of the enemy who have invaded our country we shall not let a single foe escape. On the road which would be the line of retreat of the foe, we shall place barricades and make the roads to an extent of two to three gavutas impassable and round about the territory occupied the enemy cut off the supply of food, Then when the whole hostile army is weakened we shall an action with it in which because of our rain of arrows they will have difficulty in approaching us, and destroy them”.

Warfare in Lanka

1.      Battle of the Nagas.The Mahavansa and Dipavansa relates the war between two Naga Kings,this was before the arrival of Vijaya. This battle over the gem studded throne , was settled by Lord Buddha himself. The battle ended without spilling a drop of blood. No winners or losers and for the Soldiers ,Peace is the Nibbana of Battles .

2.      Vijaya.

3.      Panduakabya.

4.      Sena and Guttika.Invade Lanka, ch 21 P 82.Two Damilas, SENA and GUTTIKA, sons of a freighter who brought horses hither, conquered the king Süratissa, at the head of a great army and reigned both (together) twenty-two years justly.

5.      Asela .Defeats the Tamils, ch 21 P 82. But when Asela had overpowered them, the son of Mutasiva, the ninth among his brothers, born of the same mother, he ruled for ten years onward from that time in Anuradhapura.

6.      Elara –A Damila of noble descent, named ELARA, who came hither from the Chola-country to seize on the kingdom. King Elara had a general named Mitta; and he had, in the village that he governed, in the eastern district near the Citta-mountain, An uncle of Nandi – Mitta-The foremost of the 10 Yodayas of Dutugemunu. How he organised the defences against the kingdom of Ruhuna along the mahaweli-ganga. His forts and the Commanders.His winning over of Kavantissa son by minor queen during the Dutugemunu – Sadatissa wars.

7.      Battles of Dutugemunu.

The Kavantissa preparations for war.Raising of the Army from Ruhuna,; Resolved the rivalies in areas not under Elara control; matrimonial ties with the Kingdom of Kalani by marrying Princess Vuharamahdevi; Established workshops for manufacture of weapons which equipped his army; He had Garrisons posted on the strategic points along Mahaweli -ganga-, with a son named Dighabaya from another queen, entrusted with Guarding the Frontier

War with Sada-Tissa-ch-24.Culananiyapitthi.Mahagama ,

After gaining the Kingship Gamini entrusted his brother Prince Sadatissa to an intensive campaign of food production and to store provision at Digavapi. Army marches on it belly dictum

War with Elara -ch 24 ,p 94.; Ch 25 ,p96 Mahiyangana; Khemarama; Antarasobbha;Dona.;Ch -25 p 96;Malakoola;Nali;Dighabhyagallake.Kaccha.;Kota.; Valuttha;Gamani;Kumbagama;Nandigama.;hanu;Tamba;nama;25 p 97;

Battle of Vijithapura ,Girilake, Mahela,Ch 25p 98;

Anurhadapura Ch ,p99;

Lolambahalaka Ch 25 p 100.

The Dutugemunu – Elara Combat from Dambulla painting. Foot Soldiers capturing prisoners

8.Vatta Gamani

His strategy which failed in the war with 5 Pandyans Ch 33 p 129 Battles Mahatittha, Kolambaraka, Ch 33 p 129

Anurhadapura, Ch 33 p 131

9.Kalatha Tissa

War with Anula ch 34 P 134

10. llanga

War with the Lambakannas ch 35 p 138; battle Ahankarapitthika.ch 35 P139

11.Vasabha.

War with Subha ch 35 P 140

12.Sirinaga

War with Kuddanaga ch 36 P 144

13.Abhayanaga

War with Voharaka Tissa, ch 36 p 146

14.Gothakabhaya

War with Sirisanghabodhi ch 36 p 147/

Read the rest Click

Battles and conflicts in Sri Lanka from 2500 BC on the Blog

Vulnarability of Soldiers with out Protection

A good example is placed on rock sculpture now at Anuradhapara Museum. It is believed to be a Virugala or Munument to a Soldier Killed in Action. Here the Warrior is wounded by two arrows one in the Head and One in the groin. The Kneeling warrior spearing the adversary is shot through the chest.

I read some where that it is not becoming of a Noble Kat [kastriya] warrior to wear armour.

In chapter 74 verse 73, the Mahavansa staes that General Bhuta was sent to reinforce General Rakkha who was bogged down inacessable fortifications in the forestb of Divacandajntabatava hemmed inby mountains on either side by the troops of Queen Sugula,

” with out in any way departing from the orders of the Illustrous Lord of men[ King ParakramabahuI], they both had doublets of buffalo hide for their men for protection against Arrows, made the great Army ready for battle, offered a sharp encounter,…..”

The Dress of a Sinhala Soldier interposing the Armour Like Dress of Vas dancer of Sri Lanka.

Name of Dress items from words in  Saddharmalamkaraya and Dambedeniasanaya as described in Society of Mediaeval Ceylon Ariyapala. The dress of Dancers were  was suggested by experts of Weapons of Sri Lanka Mr Nanayakkara and Werakkody who paint ancient Milatry scenes, that they were modification of ancient soldiers armour. Perhaps the Dancer of the Army Dance Troup should now practice the Angampadi or swordmenship of the ancient, to see if its feasible proposition.

A statue found at Anuradhapura, archeologist believe it to be of Asvin.

The arrival of Vijeya Kastriya queen from Mathuraas depicted at Ajanta accompanied by Elephant and Horse etc, wearing Jacket

I have now traced two photo’s done by experts in this field. Mr Weerakkody the painter. Please go to his web page and look for more, but I am copying a part of this fantastic painting for those interested,

Mr Weerakody’s painting of the body armour of our last king,sold off in London.

The impression of armour worn by Mr Weerakkody, from which I got the idea of the above description of armour.

The strength of armies is mentioned in Organisation of Sri Lankan army, facts from Mahavansa are reinforced by those in the Arhasastra of Kuatiliya first quoted in the Vasaba Period[ 1 Cent AD. the Vedas were taught to the other Kings. Devanampiyatissa sent a delegation to Asoka’s Court of the army Comd, a Brahman, an Accountant and an Astrologer in 250’s BC. The comd was given the rank of senapati, he should have bought back the Arthasatra.Any way the army was organised perhaps on same line depending on the three condition of Might, Place and Time.[ quoted in Mahavansa]. If there was a war the army would depend on the Might of enemy and place of battle and time etc.Dutgemunu father gave him an army of 11,110 composing of 10 divisions with Horse and elephant and Chariots in 1 cent BC. Parakramabahu during 50 Generals and was fighting all over the country in the 12 Cent AD. A later king had 24 division of 25,000 strong and 890 horses and 990 elephants etc during the 13 Cent AD. According to the Portuguese Writers the last Sinhala army who fought with out Muskets, the King of Kotte in the 15 Cent assembled 20 men, 150 horses and 30 elephant to attack the Colombo Portuguese Fortand almost succeeded . The ship and cannons fired from a flank and the Elephant panicked and the sinhalese reorganised the army and put into the field 20,000 Flint and Firelock a Century later. So the army strength depended on the threat.

About who would have won, if it was a surprise attack, perhaps give battle ahead of capital at A[nuradha]pura, if the battle is lost then hold the enemy off at Mahaweliganga crossing and retreat to Ruhuna and the mountains. Then allow the enemy to settle down and get careless in the mean time build up forces at strong points and wear down the enemy and defeat them. This was the strategy during over 12 expeditions from India.

NAVAL WARFARE IN ANCIENT LANKA

A long with developments in irrigation, art and architecture and city planning, there had been progress in ship building technology in Sri Lanka from pre-Christian times. Due to perishable nature of materials used, ships and various kinds of other vessels have completely disappeared without any trace, but technology of construction has passed from generation to generation until recent times. More recent constructions of ships, rafts, canoes, vallams, catamarans etc. have been studied in detail and even presented in illustrations by Vini Vitharana, Somasiri Devendra and Girhard Kapitan. But in the absence of surviving specimens, details pertaining to ancient ship building have to be reconstructed by perusing inscriptions, chronicles, literary texts and accounts of foreigners.

A figure of a ship with high prows and a single mast has been inscribed in a pre-Christian Brahmi inscription at Duvegala in the Polonnaruva District. Two other pre-Christian Brahmi inscriptions at Parmakanda in the Puttalam District and Maligatenna in the Kurunegala District contain the term navika which means mariner. This indicates that from the earliest times of recorded history there existed specialists in navigation in Sri Lankan Society.

The Sammohavinodini, a Commentary of Buddhaghosa states that during the Brahmana Tissa Famine (102 BC-89 BC) ships comprising three decks were constructed at Jambukolapattana (present Sambiliturai) for Buddhist monks who wished to escape to India. The lowest deck outside of which was immersed in water, was not used, travelers occupied the second deck and their belongings were placed in the upper deck. A century later, the Roman writer Pliny has mentioned that ships of Taprobane could carry 3000 amphorae or about 75 tons. His account indicates that by his time, as a result of advancements in rigging, Sri Lankan ships had improved from former times in both capacity and speed. Pliny also has stated that mariners of Taprobane navigating in the Indian Ocean, took birds out to sea with them, let them loose from time to time and followed the direction of their flight as they approached land.

In the sixth century, the Egyptian monk Cosmas, recorded that many ships regularly went to Sri Lanka (Sielediba) for purposes of trade from different countries such as India, Maldives, China, Persia and Ethiopia and that Sri Lankans too dispatched many of their own ships to foreign ports. He attributes this to the central location of the Island in the Indian Ocean.

By the end of the eighth century, South Asia including Sri Lanka has had a reputation for building the largest ships in the Asian waters. According to the early ninth century Chinese bureaucrat and writer, Li Chao, of the many ships that arrived in the ports of Annam and Canton in China “the ships from the Loin Kingdom (Sri Lanka) were the largest”.

He has also stated that there were stairways for loading and unloading in those ships. Corroborating Pliny, he further mentions that the mariners of the island, kept white pigeons on board these ships.

In 1155 AD the Arab geographer, Al Idrisi, stated that Arab ships from Oman and Yemen came to Sri Lanka and other islands in the vicinity (most probably Laccadives and Maldives) to obtain ropes, coconut trunks and timber and also to place orders for ships constructed there. Coconut trunks were used for masts and ropes for hanging sails and anchoring. R.A.L.H. Gunawardena has pointed out that timber from del tree (Artocarpus nobilis) because of its resistance to ship worms, domba (Calophyllum inophyllum) because of its flexibility and kos (Atrocarpus heterophyllum) because of its hardness were in demand among shipwrights. All these were abundantly available in Sri Lanka.

According to the Mahavamsa, Parakramabahu I (1153-86) of Polonnaruva, in order to launch a war against lower Myanmar in 1165, made preparations in advance. The war was conducted to avenge the humiliations suffered by Sri Lankan envoys and merchants during the reign of Alaungsitu in Ramannadesa or Myanmar. The historicity of the event is corroborated by the Devanagala inscription datable to the

12th year of Parakramabahu I. This inscription records a land grant to commander Kitnuwaragal for rendering valuable services in the Myanmar campaign. For this retaliatory expedition ships were constructed during a period of five months. According to the chronicle the entire coast resembled one great workshop. This statement of the chronicler may be an exaggeration but the fact remains that the long standing tradition of building merchant vessels was harnessed at this time to transport troops, nursing attendants, arms, food and medicinal supplies.

Trade contacts

According to an Arabic document of the thirteenth century, Bhuvanekabahu I (1272-84) of Yapahuwa sent an envoy named Al-HAj-Abu-Uthman to Mamluk Sultan of Egypt and expressed his desire to establish trade contacts. The document states that Buvanekabahu I desired an Egyptian ambassador accompany his envoy on his return and that he could supply trade commodities like gems, pearls and cinnamon and also twenty vessels to the Sultan annually. Although outcome of this mission is obscure, the record confirms that Sri Lanka at the time possessed advanced nautical construction techniques.

The globe trotter, Ibn Batuta who arrived in Sri Lanka in 1344 A.D. stated that the Aryacakravarti of Jaffna at the time, owned a fleet of ships which he utilized for trade with foreign countries. Circumstantial evidence indicates that at least some of these ships were built in his kingdom itself.

Parakramabahun VI (1412-67) of Kotte also had his own trading vessels. The Rajavaliya states that when some of the Sri Lankan ships were robbed in South India, he sent an expeditionary force in retaliation to the port of Ativiraramapattana (Adraimpet) and punished the culprits.

Thus ancient Sri Lanka was not only a shipping hub in its own right but also an island which could boast of an advanced ship building industry. The Sinhalese, Tamils as well as Muslims have contributed to the development of this industry in various ways.

Signet Ring Stone of rock crystal , probably of a ship captain.

Pakramabahu I Fleet.

“……..Then the highly famed one gave the order without delay to make ready ships of various kinds, many hundreds in number. Now all the country round about the coast was one great workshop fully occupied with the building of the ship taken in hand. When in five months he had all the ships built, he assembled them in haste at the port of Pallavavanka…..”.

Parakramabhu I – expedition against King Kulasekera of South India.

“He[ General Lankapura] embraked his great army on many hundreds of ships, started off and sailed a day and a night on the back of the ocean. When he caught sight of the coast, since a hostile army was standing there, he made all his troops put of armour on board. As the ships had to lie in deep water[ Gieger- Agadhe samnivttanabhavato– The coast is so flat that ship cannot lie close] and because with a landing just at this spot, the armour of the whole army would have been wet through, he made the troops get into hundred of boats of small size[Gieger commnts;-Ekadoninaca– Droni means boat as also a measure of volume]

Then when the rain of arrows from the Damilas standing on the coast, came flying, he had shields fashioned of leather set up in front of the soldiers against the arrows and so landed in the Pandu Kingdom at the port of Taladilla……”

Sinhala Navy of the Portuguese and Dutch periods – Capt Sally De Silva CA.The kings of Sinhala had Navani, or Naval Forces, (Nau – sanskrit nau, ‘ship’ and, ani-sanskrit anikca, army,).

Moggallana [ 497-516 AD] instituted a coastal Guard to prevent possible invasion from India.[ History of Ceylon Vol I pt I pg 298]. The Coast Guards concept has been reintroduced a few years back.

Naval Ports on record in the Island.

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